lalrpop/doc/tutorial.md

LALRPOP

LALRPOP is a parser generator, similar in principle to YACC, Menhir, and other such programs. In general, it has the grand ambition of being the most usable parser generator ever. This ambition is most certainly not fully realized: right now, it's fairly standard, maybe even a bit subpar in some areas. But hey, it's young. For the most part, this README is intended to describe the current behavior of LALRPOP, but in some places it includes notes for planned future changes.

LALRPOP is looking for contributions as well! If you're interested in helping out, please come find nmatsakis on IRC.

Quick start: the calculator project

Before diving into the details, let's develop a quick "first project" with LALRPOP. To start, we'll develop a little calculator for expressions like "3 - 5 * 2" and so forth. After this, we'll do some more examples that use some of LALRPOP's more advanced features, like macros and constructing parse trees. You can find the source code in the calculator directory.

LALRPOP works as a preprocessor that is integrated with cargo. When LALRPOP is invoked, it will search your source directory for files with the extension lalrpop and create corresponding rs files. So, for example, if we have a file calculator.lalrpop, the preprocessor will create a Rust file calculator.rs. As an aside, the syntax of LALRPOP intentionally hews fairly close to Rust, so it should be possible to use the Rust plugin to edit lalrpop files as well, as long as it's not too picky (the emacs rust-mode, in particular, works just fine).

Creating the calculator project and invoking LALRPOP

To start, let's use cargo new to make a new project. We'll call it calculator1 for now:

> cargo new --bin calculator1

We now have to edit the generated calculator1/Cargo.toml file to invoke the LALRPOP preprocessor. The resulting file should look something like:

[package]
name = "calculator1"
version = "0.1.0"
authors = ["Niko Matsakis <niko@alum.mit.edu>"]
build = "build.rs" # <-- We added this and everything after!

[build-dependencies]
lalrpop = "0.5.0"

Adding a build directive to the [package] section tells Cargo to run build.rs as a pre-processing step. The [build-dependencies] section that specifies the dependencies for build.rs -- in this case, just LALRPOP.

Next we have to add build.rs itself. This should just look like the following:

extern crate lalrpop;

fn main() {
    lalrpop::process_root().unwrap();
}

The function process_root processes your src directory, converting all lalrpop files into rs files. It is smart enough to check timestamps and do nothing if the rs file is newer than the lalrpop file, and to mark the geneated rs file as read-only. It returns an io::Result<()>, so the unwrap() call just asserts that no file-system errors occurred.

NOTE: On Windows, the necessary APIs are not yet stable, so timestamp checking is disabled.

calculator1: Parsing parenthesized numbers

OK, now we're all set to start making a LALRPOP grammar. Before we tackle full expressions, let's start with something simple -- really simple. Let's just start with parenthesized integers, like 123 or (123) or even (hold on to your hats) (((123))). Wow.

To handle this, we'll need a to add a calculator1.lalrpop as shown below. Note: to make explaining things easier, this version is maximally explicit; the next section will make it shorter by employing some shorthands that LALRPOP offers.

use std::str::FromStr;

grammar;

pub Term: i32 = {
    <n:Num> => n,
    "(" <t:Term> ")" => t,
};

Num: i32 = <s:r"[0-9]+"> => i32::from_str(s).unwrap();

Let's look at this bit by bit. The first part of the file is the use statement and the grammar declaration. You'll find these at the top of every LALRPOP grammar. Just as in Rust, the use statement just brings names in scope: in fact, these use statements are just copied verbatim into the generated Rust code as needed.

A note about underscores and hygiene: LALRPOP generates its own names that begin with at least two leading underscores. To avoid conflicts, it will insert more underscores if it sees that you use identifiers that also have two underscores. But if you use glob imports that bring in names beginning with __, you may find you have invisible conflicts. To avoid this, don't use a glob (or define some other name with two underscores somewhere else).

Nonterminal declarations. After the grammar declaration comes a series of nonterminal declarations. This grammar has two nonterminals, Term and Num. A nonterminal is just a name that we give to something which can be parsed. Each nonterminal is then defined in terms of other things.

Let's start with Num, at the end of the file, which is declared as follows:

Num: i32 =
    <s:r"[0-9]+"> => i32::from_str(s).unwrap();

This declaration says that the type of Num is i32. This means that when we parse a Num from the input text, we will produce a value of type i32. The definition of Num is <s:r"[0-9]+">. Let's look at this from the inside out. The notation r"[0-9]+" is a regex literal -- this is the same as a Rust raw string. (And, just as in Rust, you can use hashes if you need to embed quotes, like r#"..."..."#.) It will match against a string of characters that matches the regular expression: in this case, some number of digits. The result of this match will be a slice &'input str into the input text that we are parsing (no copies are made).

This regular expression is wrapped in angle brackets and labeled: <s:r"[0-9+]">. In general, angle brackets are used in LALRPOP to indicate the values that will be used by the action code -- that is, the code that executes when a Num is parsed. In this case, the string that matches the regular expression is bound to the name s, and the action code i32::from_str(s).unwrap() parses that string and creates an i32. Hence the result of parsing a Num is an i32.

OK, now let's look at the nonterminal Term:

pub Term: i32 = {
    <n:Num> => n,
    "(" <t:Term> ")" => t,
};

First, this nonterminal is declared as pub. That means that LALRPOP will generate a public function (named, as we will see, parse_Term) that you can use to parse strings as Term. Private nonterminals (like Num) can only be used within the grammar itself, not from outside.

The Term nonterminal has two alternative definitions, which is indicated by writing { alternative1, alternative2 }. In this case, the first alternative is <n:Num>, meaning that a term can be just a number; so 22 is a term. The second alternative is "(" <t:Term> ")", which indicates that a term can also be a parenthesized term; so (22) is a term, as is ((22)), ((((((22)))))), and so on.

Invoking the parser. OK, so we wrote our parser, how do we use it? For every nonterminal Foo declared as pub, LALRPOP will export a parse_Foo fn that you can call to parse a string as that nonterminal. Hhere is a simple test that we've added to our main.rs file which uses this function to test our Term nonterminal:

pub mod calculator1; // synthesized by LALRPOP

#[test]
fn calculator1() {
    assert!(calculator1::parse_Term("22").is_ok());
    assert!(calculator1::parse_Term("(22)").is_ok());
    assert!(calculator1::parse_Term("((((22))))").is_ok());
    assert!(calculator1::parse_Term("((22)").is_err());
}

calculator2: Employing shorthands and type-inference

OK, now that we understand the calculator1 example, let's look at some of the shorthands that LALRPOP offers to make it more concise. This code is found in the calculator2 demo.

To start, let's look at the definition of Term we saw before:

pub Term: i32 = {
    <n:Num> => n,
    "(" <t:Term> ")" => t,
};

The action code here is somewhat interesting. In both cases, it's not doing any new work, it's just selecting a value that was produced by another nonterminal. This turns out to be pretty common. So common, in fact, that LALRPOP offers some shorthand notation for it. Here is the definition of Term from the calculator2 demo:

pub Term = { Num, "(" <Term> ")" };

Here, we have no action code at all. If there is no action code, LALRPOP synthesizes action code which just takes the value of the things being matched. In the case of the first alternative, Num, there is only one thing being matched, so that means that Term will produce the same value as the Num we parsed, whatever that was.

In the case of the second alternative, "(" <Term> ")", there are three things being matched. Here we use the angle brackets to select which item(s) we want to take the value of --- we selected only one, so the result is that we take the value of the Term we parsed. If we selected more than one, the result would be a tuple of all the selected items. If we did not select any (i.e., "(" Term ")"), the result would be a tuple of all the items, and hence the result would be of type (&'static str, i32, &'static str).

Speaking of types, you may have noticed that Term has no type annotation. Since we didn't write out own action code, we can omit the type annotation and let LALRPOP infer it for us. In this case, LALRPOP can see that Term must have the same type as Num, and hence that the type must be i32.

OK, let's look at the definition of Num we saw before from calculator1:

Num: i32 = <s:r"[0-9]+"> => i32::from_str(s).unwrap();

This definition too can be made somewhat shorter. In calculator2, you will find:

Num: i32 = r"[0-9]+" => i32::from_str(<>).unwrap();

Here, instead of giving the regular expression a name s, we modified the action code to use the funky expression <>. This is a shorthand that says "synthesize names for the matched values and insert a comma-separated list here". In this case, there is only one matched value, r"[0-9]+", and it produces a &'input str, so LALRPOP will insert a synthetic variable for that value. Note that we still have custom action code, so we still need a type annotation.

To control what values are selected when you use the <> expression in your action code, you can use angle brackets as we saw before. Here are some examples of alternatives and how they are expanded to give you the idea:

Alternative	Equivalent to
A => bar(<>)	<a:A> => bar(a)
A B => bar(<>)	<a:A> <b:B> => bar(a, b)
<A> B => bar(<>)	<a:A> B => bar(a)
<A> <B> => bar(<>)	<a:A> <b:B> => bar(a, b)

calculator3: Full-featured expressions

Now we are ready to extend our calculator to cover the full range of arithmetic expressions (well, at least the ones you learned in elementary school). Here is the final calculator example, calculator3:

use std::str::FromStr;

grammar;

pub Expr: i32 = {
    <l:Factor> "+" <r:Factor> => l+r,
    <l:Factor> "-" <r:Factor> => l-r,
};

Factor: i32 = {
    <l:Term> "*" <r:Term> => l*r,
    <l:Term> "/" <r:Term> => l/r,
};

Term: i32 = {
    Num,
    "(" <Expr> ")"
};

Num: i32 = {
    r"[0-9]+" => i32::from_str(<>).unwrap()
};